During the last century in the industrial regions of England, a light coloured peppered moth Biston betularia was found on the bark of trees. The tree bark was covered by whitish lichens, so light coloured moths escaped unnoticed from predatory birds.

After industrialisation, barks got covered by smoke, so the white moths were selectively picked up by birds. However, the black coloured moths escaped unnoticed against a dark background and became abundant.

However, in recent years, reduced industrial pollution has led to the growth of lichens again and thus, the population of light coloured moths is again increasing.

This evolutionary story of moths in England, thus reveals, that 'evolution is apparently reversible'

Evolution helps us to understand the history of life. We can view evolution as a pattern of evolutionary change and as a process as well.

The world we see, all the inanimate and animate, is only the success stories of evolution. When we describe the story of this world, we describe evolution as a process.

On the other hand, when we describe the story of life an earth, we treat evolution as a consequence of a process called natural selection. Natural selection is the outcome of favourable variations among organisms and environmental conditions.

Thus, we are still not very clear whether to regard evolution and natural selection as processes or end result of processes.

Factors affecting allele frequency in populations are as described below

(i) Mutations These are sudden heritable changes which are supposed to be the primary source of genetic variation. They are of following two types

(a) Chromosomal Mutations They arise due to changes in chromosome number and changes in structure.

(b) Gene Mutations These are changes in gene structure and expression due to addition, deletion, substitution or inversion of nucleotides.

(ii) Non-random Mating Repeated mating between individuals of certain selected traits changes the gene frequency, e.g., selection of more brightly coloured male bird by a female bird may increase the gene frequency of bright colour in the next generation.

(iii) Gene Flow (Gene Migration) It is the movement of alleles into and out of a gene pool. Breeding of immigrants with the host population adds new alleles to the gene pool of the host population.

Yes, we agree. As the gene flow occurs through geographical barriers over generations, by studying specific allelic frequencies in various populations of the world, we can predict the human migratory patterns in pre-historic and historic era.

There have been projects undertaken such as human genographics project. Which uses data from studies on specific genes/chromosomes/mitochondrial DNA to trace the evolutionary history and migratory patterns of humans.

The meaning of the given words are as given below

Race It is a classification system used to categorise humans into large and distinct populations or groups by anatomical, cultural, linguistic, geographical, historical and for relegious relationship.

Breed It is a specific group of domestic animals or plants having homogenous appearance, homogenous behaviour and other characteristics that distinguish it from other animals or plants of the same species and that were arrived at through selective breeding.

Cultivar It is a plant or grouping of plants selected for desirable characteristics that can be maintained by propogation. 'Cultivar' stands for 'cultivated variety'.

Variety A variety arises naturally in the plant kingdom and plant grown from its seeds will typically come out true to type.